Historical method of political science

Historical method of political science The present is the gift of the past. This is the reason why we seek help of history, when we study the origin, development and the present nature of such political institution as the State and the Government. The historical method supplements the experimental method. Montesquieu, Saving, Seeley, Maine Freeman and Laski are some of the eminent exponents of historical method. Sabine and other traditional writers attached great importance historical approach. “A political theory” according to Sabine is always advanced in reference to a pretty specific situation”. It is therefore essential to understand “the time, place and circumstances in which it was produced”.

Historical approach of political science

When international political order is studied with reference to its past, it is known as historical approach. The historical approach to the study of international political order emphasizes the following.

• Domestic and international political order is not static but dynamic in nature.
• Historical background of every nation is important in analyzing the present international political order.

Institutional approach of political science

This chapter is about the international political components that one has to understand from both historical and institutional perspectives. For a better understanding, the chapter is divided into two major parts.
The first part explains the term international political order from both historical and institutional framework.
In the second part, international and regional organizations are explained in detail to illustrate how far they were successful in maintaining international political order. Students of political science must remember that international political order is not a static one but dynamic in nature. In the context of present globalized economic order and communication revolutions we live in a different world of political order.
The history of international political order is written in terms of continuity and change in domestic and international political relations. As a step in the direction of understanding such continuity and change, this chapter explores some ideas drawn from an institutional perspective. An institutional perspective is characterized in terms of organized and formalized efforts in order to bring the desired political order at regional and international level. Students of political science try to understand how and when international political order are created, maintained, changed, and abandoned. Many of the key questions belong to a wider class of difficult questions about the dynamics of social order and development. How can order develop out of anarchy? What stabilizes an order? When and how does a stables order fall apart? How does peaceful change occur? Why do peaceful relations sometimes find themselves drawn into less peaceful confrontations? How is the search for order among collectivities linked to the search for order within them? This chapter explains such questions. It considers a few distinctive ways of thinking about the history and existing international and regional political organizations and elaborates some of them as an example, the League of Nations, UNO, NAM and SAARC, which could be called an institutional approach to such thinking.

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Modern political system and Types of political system

They are differentiated from of Modern political system on the basis of the principles of:

• Democracy
• Modernity.

A political system is said to be democratic if its political subsystem, like political parties or interest groups, enjoy autonomy with regard to the decision-making governmental system. If not, it is a traditional political system. Hence there are four types of political systems, as under

• Traditional non-democratic political system.
• Traditional democratic political system.
• Modern non-democratic Political System.

David Easton Political System

The first political scientist to apply systems analysis to politics in his book, The Political System, which he wrote in 1953. The concept of political system was very formally the sold by the political scientist. Easton defines a political system is that system of the interactions in any society through which binding or authoritative allocations are made and implemented. Authoritative allocations relate to the values or objects or resources of human needs and desires. They can be roughly translated as laws or acts of policy. Easton’s model of the political system consists of two main parts the environment and the political system as such. The political system consists of

• The conversion process,
• The inputs,
• The outputs,
• The feedback.

According to Easton, there are, besides the political system, two other political systems. One of them is bellow it, which he called Para-political system, e.g. political panics, pressure groups, etc. and the other is above it, namely the international political system. But it is the national political system which is political system par excellence because it alone makes and implements authoritative decisions allocating values or goods and resources to individuals, and groups, in the society.

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Definition of party system

A political party has been defined as an organized body of people who stand for certain principles and policies in political life of the country, by whose co – operation they seek to promote the interest of the country as a whole. According to,

• Edmund Burke: A political party is a body of men united for promoting by their joint endeavors the national interest, upon some particular principle in which they all are agreed.”
• Stephen Leacock: By a political party we mean more or less an organized group of citizens who act together as political unit”
• Gilchrist: A Political party is an organized group of citizens who professes to share the same political views“

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Theory of the separation of powers

Since the ancient day of Aristotle, political writers have recognized the threefold distribution of governmental functions or powers. They are

• The law making or legislature power
• The law-enforcing or executive power.
• The law adjudicating or judicial power.
Each power is exercised by its own department or organ of government.

Montesquieu theory of the separation of powers

Montesquieu explained his theory in this word: “in every government there are three sorts of power: Legislative, Executive and judicial. The liberty of individual required that neither all these powers nor any two of them should be placed in the hands of one men or one body of men.

• When the legislative and executive powers are united in the same person or body , there can be no liberty, because apprehensions may arise that the king, who is also law maker, might make and enforce the laws in a tyrannical manner.
• If the judicial power is joined with the legislative , the life and liberty of the subject will be exposed to arbitrary control, for the judge would then be the legislator.
• Where the judicial power joined to the executive power, the judge might behave violence and oppression.
• There would be an end of everything if the same man or the same body, whether of the nobles or of the people, were to exercise those three powers, that of enacting laws, that of enforcing them and of trying the cases of individuals

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Relationship of political science with history and sociology.

Political science and history

There is closed and intimate relationship between political science and history. The relationship between political science and history is beautifully explained by.

John Seeley

History without political science has no fruit and political science without history has no root”. To quote the same author again.
Politics is vulgar when not liberalized by history and history fades into mere literature when it loses sight of its relation to politics.

Freeman

History is past politics and politics is present history “. They are complementary to each other.

Montesquieu and Bryce

Montesquieu and Bryce made use of historical materials to study political science.

Lord Bryce

Lord Bryce claims that, political science stands midway between history and politics, between the past and the present. It has drawn its materials from the one; it has to apply them to the other.
History deals with past events, movements revolutions, national struggles etc. and gives information about the origin and development of political institutions and thought. When various issues, concepts and terms, ideologies, are discussed in political science, their historical development is also taken into consideration.

Political science and sociology

Sociology is the root of all social sciences. Auguste Comte is the father of sociology. Sociology is the study of Society. Political science and sociology are inter-related political scientists and sociologists contribute mutually for the benefit of whole society. For example, the institution of marriage and related problems after that, namely divorce are within the domain of sociology. How to solve these problems in a harmonious way for better standard of life is within the competence of political science. What was once a sub-field of sociology has now takes the form of “political sociology” which is now a legitimate subfield of political science.

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Austin’s theory of sovereignty (monistic view)

In the 19th century the theory of sovereignty as a legal concept was perfected by Austin, an English Jurist. He is regarded as a greatest exponent of Monistic Theory.
In his book Province of Jurisprudence Determined (1832) Austin observed if a determinate human superior, not in the habit of obedience to a like superior, receives habitual obedience from the bulk of a given society, that determinate superior is sovereign in that society and that society (including superior) is a society political and independent.
To Austin in every state there exists an authority to which a large mass of citizen show compliance. This authority is absolute, unlimited and indivisible.
Austin’s theory of sovereignty depends mainly upon his view on nature of law. According to Austin “Law is a command given by a superior to inferior” the main tenets of Austin’s theory of sovereignty are as follows.

• Sovereign power is essential in every political society.
• Sovereignty is a person or body of persons. It is not necessary that sovereign should be a single person.
Sovereignty may reside in many persons also. Austin explains that a “Sovereign is not necessarily a single person, in the modern western world he is rarely so but he must have so much of the attributes of a single person as to be a determinate.” To Austin state is a legal order, in which there is a supreme authority, which is source of all powers. Sovereignty is concerned with man, and every state must have human superior who can issue commands and create laws. Human laws are the proper subjects of state activity.

• Sovereign power is indivisible. Division of sovereignty leads to its destruction. It cannot be divided.
• The command of sovereignty is superior to over all individuals and associations. Sovereign is not bound to obey anyone’s order. His will is supreme. There is no question of right or wrong, just or unjust, all his commands are to be obeyed.
• Austin’s theory says that the obedience to sovereign must be habitual. It means that obedience should be continuous. He also includes that is not necessary that obedience should come from the whole society. It is sufficient, if it comes from the lay majority of people. Obedience should come from bulk of the society otherwise there is no sovereign.

In brief we can say that sovereignty according to Austin is supreme, indivisible and unquestionable. Like all other theories of sovereignty Austin’s theory is also not free from criticism. The first criticism is regarding sovereignty residing in a determinate superior. Even sovereign’s acts are shaped by so many other influences, such as morals, values and customs of the society

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Political system

Political system From Institutional to systemic Approach

Institutional approach in the study of politics has been common in the past. Political science was believed to be mainly, even exclusively, concerned with the study of such political institutions as the state and government, their various activities, pans and functions. In this approach, no attempt was made to see any relationship or effect both within and outside an institution. However this approach began to change at the end of the nineteenth and in the beginning of the twentieth century. It was brought about by a new approach to the study of a politics, which is known as system analysis. It was also due to the need for comparing different kinds of states and governments in the world, especially after the World War II.

System Analysis

From about 130 and especially since the behavioral revolution in 1950 the study of politics has been influenced by the concept is derived from biology and physical sciences, in which the focus is on systems. System is bounded regions in space-time, involving energy interchange among their parts, which are associated in functional relationship. In simpler words, it means that every living and non-living body consist of two or more parts, which are constantly acting and interceding with each other as well as with the environment around it, as a single operating whole, or as a system. Examples of such operating wholes or system are countless, for the whole universe is full of them. Some are very small and other immense in dimensions. The atom is a system, and so are molecules, crystals, viruses, clocks, engines, ocean fleets, animals (including humans), small groups, like families or schools, societies (including state or political systems), planets, solar systems, galaxies, etc. If, however, we restrict ourselves to living systems, they are really behavior systems, which extend from viruses and animal to human societies and political system. Moreover, a system consists of two or more subsystems. For instance, human body, which is in itself a system, consist of several subsystem, such as the nervous system, the digestive system, the circulatory system, etc.

Definition of a system

A system is a structural functional organization of two or more separate but interdependent parts, which form an integrated whole o achieve some objectives. Each system has two or more subsystems within it, while it is itself a subsystem of a larger system, which forms its environment. For example, a family is a subsystem of the society, or a political party is a subsystem of the state which is itself a political system.

Every system has the following characteristics

1. Inter-dependence

It means that the functioning of a system depends on the proper functioning of each one of its component parts.

2. Dynamic Equilibrium

A system maintains itself throughout a limited period of time. If anything goes wrong in it, some regulatory mechanism comes into operation to restore equilibrium.

3. Activity

A system is a flow process it exist to convert inputs into output.

4. Dependence on external environment

A system maintains itself by constantly interacting with the environment around it. Such a system is known as an open system.

Definition of political system

A political system means a network of individuals, groups and organizations whose interactions, and relationships help to determine, enforce and interpret the rules and policies governing the behavior of the society. It includes not only the governmental institutions, such as legislature, courts, or administrative agencies but also all structures in their political aspects, as Almond says. Every political system exists with a social system or society, of which it is, a subsystem. The society around the political system is its environment, from which it is separated by its boundaries.
The political system may be described as follow.

• International political system – Which is the international community – IGO, INGO, etc.
• National political system – The individual national system and individual states and gov:
• Decision making sub system – Which is includes form of government constitution, political party, interest group etc
• Citizen as a voter which demand and support.

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Legislature

Executive

It is one of the three branches of government as given above. State functions through the executive, the namely the government. It is the duty of the executive or enforces the laws passed by the legislature. .
The executive who exercise real power is the real executive. The executive who has nominal power is the normal executive. The President of India is the nominal executive. The union council of ministers led by the Prime Minister of India is the real executive. Parliamentary executive is chosen from the legislature and is responsible to the legislature. The executive in India is parliamentary in its character. .
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Powers and functions of executive

• Enforcing law.
• Maintaining peace and order.
• Repelling aggression.
• Building friendly relations with other states.
• When necessary to wage war to protect the country.
• Making appointments to higher posts.
• Raising money and spending them.
• Convening the sessions of the legislature and conducting business.
• Issues ordinances whenever the legislature is to in session.
• Implement schemes and projects to improve he social and economic conditions of the people.
• Power to grant pardon, reprieve or remission of punishment.

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Legislature

The legislature is the law making branch. The legislature has an important role in the amendment of the constitution. The legislature is a deliberative body where matters of social, economic and political concerns are discussed, debated and decided. The British parliament is said to be “the mother of parliaments”. It is the oldest legislature in the world. According to Prof. Laski, law- making is not the only function of the legislature but its real function is to watch the process of administration to safeguard the liberties of private citizens. The legislature of the union is called the parliament in India. It consists of two chambers.

• The House of the People or the Lok Sabah as the Lower House.
• The Council of State or the Rajya Sabah as the Upper House

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The functions of legislature

• Enact laws
• Oversee administration
• Pass the budget
• Hear public grievances.
• Discuss subjects like
  1. Development plans
  2. National policies
  3. International relations.

Judiciary

Judiciary is the third important organ of the government machinery. Its main function is to interrupter laws and administers justice. Lord Bryce has said that there is to better test of excellence of government than the efficiency of its judicial system. The welfare of citizens depends to a larger extent upon the judiciary. Judiciary is one of the pillars of democracy. Its interpretation ensures justice, equality and liberty to all its citizens. An independent and impartial judiciary is an essential feature of a democratic setup.
The Supreme Court of India consists of a Chief Justice and other judges. The Supreme Court has its permanent seat in Delhi. According to Justice Hughes, “we are under a constitution, but the constitution is what the judges say it is”. .
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Functions of judiciary

• Administration of justice.
• To determine what is law and what is the cope and meaning of it.
• To give advisory opinion on matters referred to it.
• To issue orders or writs for the purpose of preventing violation of rights and laws.
• to acts as guardian of the constitution.

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Election

Election is the formal process of selecting a person for public office or of accepting or rejecting a political proposition by voting. It is important to distinguish between the form and the substance of elections. In some cases, electoral forms are present but the substance of an election is missing, as when voters do not have a free and genuine choice between at least two alternatives. Most countries hold elections in at least the formal sense, but in many of them the elections are not competitive (e.g., all but one party may be forbidden to contest) or the electoral situation is in other respects highly compromised.

Methods of election

An election is the occasion or the means by which the qualified voters make a choice among two or more candidates for the seat in legislature or some public office. It is of two kinds, direct and indirect.

Direct election

Direct election is a term describing a system of choosing political officeholders in which the voters directly cast ballots for the person, persons or political party that they desire to see elected. The method by which the winner or winners of a direct election are chosen depends upon the electoral system used. The most commonly used systems are the plurality system and the two round systems for single winner elections, such as a presidential election, and party-list proportional representation for the election of a legislature. Examples of directly elected bodies are the European Parliament and the United States Senate (since 1917).

Indirect election

Indirect election is a process in which voters in an election do not actually choose between candidates for an office but rather elect persons who will then make the choice. It is one of the oldest forms of elections and is still used today for many upper houses and presidents. This process is also used in many union elections and sometimes in professional, civic, and fraternal organizations.

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Sovereignty

Sovereignty is an essential element of the state. State cannot exit without sovereignty. State is regarded superior to other associations only because of sovereignty. In fact modern theory of state got its proper shape and perfection only when the concept of sovereignty was introduced in it.
When we try to search for the origin of this concept we find that he term sovereignty is the product of modern political thinking but the idea goes back to the time of Aristotle who referred to it as the “supreme power” of the state. In Middle Ages Roman jurist and civilians were also familiar to this idea. But it was Jean Bodin who developed for the first time the theory of sovereignty systematically in his book “Six Books on the Republic”.

Meaning, nature and definitions of Sovereignty

The term sovereignty is derived from the Latin word ‘Superanus’ meaning supreme. It is basically a legal concept. It denotes supremacy of state. To understand the term sovereignty, it is desirable to look into some definitions of the given by some political thinkers.

Jean Bodin defined sovereignty as

Jean Bodin defined sovereignty as “absolute and perpetual power of commanding in a state. It is supreme power over citizens and subjects unrestrained by law”. Pollock says that “Sovereignty is that power which is neither temporary nor delegated nor subject to particular rules, which it cannot alter, nor answerable to any other power on the earth.”

Burgers described sovereignty as

Burgers described sovereignty as “original absolute unlimited power over the undivided subjects and over all associations of subjects. It is the underused and independent power to command and compel obedience.”

D.F Russell defines sovereignty as

D.F Russell defines sovereignty as “the strongest power and supreme authority within a state, which is unlimited by law or anything else.

Legal and political sovereignty

Distinction is sometimes drawn between legal and political sovereignty. The sovereign is supposed to be absolute and omnipotent. It functions according to its own will. Law is simply the will of sovereign.
There is none to question its validity. Legal sovereign grants rights to its citizens and there can be no rights against him. It means rights of citizens depend on the will of legal sovereign and any time he can take away. Legal sovereign has following characteristics

• The legal sovereignty is always definite and determinate.
• Legal sovereignty may reside either in one person or in a body of persons. .
• It is definitely organized, precise and known to law. .
• Rights of citizen are gift of legal sovereign. .
• The will of state is expressed by the legal sovereign only. .
• Legal sovereignty is absolute. It cannot be question. .

In Britain King in Parliament is the sovereign. In U.S the legal sovereign consists of the constitutional authorities that have the power to amend constitution. But behind the legal sovereignty there is another power, which is unknown to law. It is political sovereignty. In practice absolute and unlimited authority of the legal sovereignty does not exist anywhere. Even a dictator cannot act independently and exclusively. The will of legal sovereignty is actually sharpened by many influences, which are unknown to law. All these influences are the real power behind the legal sovereign; and this is called political sovereignty.

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Democracy

In the dictionary definition, democracy is government by the people in which the supreme power is vested in the people and exercised directly by them or by their elected agents under a free electoral system.
In the words of Abraham Lincoln, democracy is a government “of the people, by the people, and for the people.
Following are the varied definition of democracy.
“Democracy comes from the Greek words demos meaning ‘People’ and kratos meaning ‘authority’ or ‘power. Government which is conducted with the freely given consent of people a system of government in which supreme authority lies with the people.” Rule by the people in a country directly or by representation.
“The form of government in which political control exercised by all the people, either directly or through their elected representative.”
The word ‘democracy’ itself means ‘rule by the people. “A democracy is a system where people can change their rulers in a peaceful manner and the government is given the right to rule because the people say it may.

Direct democracy

In a direct democracy, all citizens, without the intermediary of elected or appointed officials, can participate in making public decisions. Such a system is clearly only practical with relatively small numbers of people in a community organization to tribal council, for example, or the local unit of a labor union, where members can meet in a single room to discuss issues and arrive at decisions by consensus or majority vote.

Indirect democracy

Everyone has the right to take part in the government of his country, directly or though freely chosen representatives.The will of the people shall be the basis of the authority of government; this shall be expressed in periodic and genuine election that shall be held by universal and equal suffrage and shall be held by secret vote or the equivalent free voting procedures.
During elections, citizens vote for the candidate for their choice. Elected leader represent “the people” and govern for a set period of office. Representatives are chosen through elections based on the constituency or proportional representation system, or on a combination of the two.

Constitutional democracies

Democracies are based on a written constitution or a supreme law that serves to guide legislators and the laws they make. Written constitutions serve as a guarantee to citizens that the government is required to act in a certain way and uphold certain rights. The strength of a real democracy depends on certain fundamental rights and freedoms. These rights and freedoms must be protected to make sure that a democracy will succeed. In many countries these rights are found in and protected by a constitution. The constitution also sets out the structures and other laws.

Merits of democracy

• The participation of the individual members in the government facilitates to enlist their sympathy and co–operation to the success of the government.
• It is an effective form to educate the public about political, economic and social affairs.
• It is helpful to promote patriotism among the people and prevents occurrence of violent revolutions.
• It helps to make progress and development and enables changes to take place in a peaceful manner.
• It ensures to the people freedom of speech, conscience, assembly and action.
• It guarantees liberty and equality, which are necessary for human development.

Demerits of democracy

• It sometimes leads to establish the majority view over the minority view.
• Party leaders and political office holders in government control the citizens and the members of the party.
• It does not encourage individuals to give their opinions.
• It is a very expensive form of government because elections have to be conducted periodically to various offices.
• It is difficult to prevent corruption and malpractices.
• It is also known as government by amateurs and lead to domination of masses.

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Origin of state

These are the theories on the origin of state as have been formed and developed as a result of the political thought and philosophy in the ancient time until the enlightenment period in Europe.

1. Natural Theory.

The social urge of the human being to be within a group of people in the community as in sociology describes that “man is a social being.” The social group provides the political development to stay and work together with common standard law in the community later on transform as a state.

2. Patriarchal Theory.

The origin of the state evolves from the enlargement of family under the authority of the parents or the elders. Later on, it will develop into a tribe, kingdom then state.

3. Force Theory.

The creation of the state through the constant war and invasion of the great warriors in the ancient time dominated the weak that later on formed a state.

4. Divine Right Theory.

The rulers of the past advocated the political dominance of authority and power through their own ordained mandate that they represented the state as on the basis of the divine right ( as God created the state).It was in this nature that the divine rights of kings has the absolute power and influence over the subjects.

5. Social Contract Theory.

This is the right of the people to have the deliberate and voluntary contract on the right to overthrow the kings and rulers against corrupt governance to organize a new government with common interest for all the people.

The forms of government

The forms of government discusses the sovereign powers along the political rulers as to the number of persons in power; the distribution of political powers of the government; and the relationships of the branches of government.

According to the Number of Persons Exercising Sovereign Powers

Usually, the sovereign powers are exercised by the rulers who are being called King, Emperor, President or Prime Minister to lead in the administration of the government. The common classifications under the number of persons are monarchy, aristocracy, and democracy.

Monarchy

There is only one ruler who exercises the supreme authority with the basis on the divine rights and constitution to handle governmental affairs. The ruler of the monarchial form is called “king” or “emperor” which has been on the basis of royal blood or dynastic rule of governance. There are two classifications of monarchy as evolved in the history of Europe:

Absolute Monarchy

The Egyptian, Mesopotamian, Chinese, Persian and European civilization followed this system of governance under the rules of divine rights. The emperors and kings were believed to be the representative of god as the source of political authority and powers to administer the affairs of the government.

Limited Monarchy

This was the transformation of the absolute monarchy in Europe that “kings” and “emperors’ were no longer presented by the doctrine of the divine rights but must rule in accordance of the constitution. Therefore, the political power is usually limited in accordance with the established constitution. It is nominal and symbolic as to the governmental functions in the executive and legislative branch of government.

Aristocracy

The government that hold by the few privileged class. The social stratification of the society only those with wealth has the political power to hold the governmental affairs of the state .They are considered as the powerful class with enough money to hold political position and influence to the people. This form of government has been called the “oligarch” and “aristocrat” who controlled the economic power as they controlled the wealth of the nation.

Unitary state

A unitary state is a state governed as one single unit in which the central government is supreme and any administrative divisions (sub national units) exercise only powers that their central government chooses to delegate. Many states in the world have a unitary system of government.
Unitary states are contrasted with federal states (federations):
In a unitary state, sub national units are created and abolished and their powers may be broadened and narrowed, by the central government. Although political power in unitary states may be delegated through devolution to local government by statute, the central government remains supreme; it may abrogate the acts of devolved governments or curtail their powers.

Federal state (federalism)

A federal is one in which the supreme powers in the state are disturbed by the constitution between a central government and the governments of the federating units, making each government supreme within its own sphere of powers. As distinguished from a unitary government, a federation is a dual government, with two sets of governments, each of which exercises supreme and original authority within its sphere of powers as defined by the constitution. According to Hamilton, a federation is an association of States forming a new one. “ In the opinion of Dicey, it is “ a political contrivance intended to reconcile national unity with the maintenance of state rights.”

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The state and elements of the state

The state is the most universal and most powerful of all social institutions. The state is a natural institution.
Aristotle said man is a social animal and by nature he is a political being. To him, to live in the state and to be a man were identical. .
The modern term “state” is derived from the word “status”. It was Niccolo Machiavelli (1469 – 1527) who first used the term “state” in his writings. His important work is titled as “Prince”. .
The state is the highest form of human association. It is necessary because it comes into existence out of the basic needs of life. It continues to remain for the sake of good life.
The aims, desires and aspirations of human beings are translated into action through the state. Though the state is a necessary institution, no two writers agree on its Definition.

Woodrow Wilson

State is a people organized for law within a definite territory.

Aristotle

The state as a “union of families and villages having for its end a perfect and self – sufficing life by which it meant a happy and honourable life”.

Holland

The state is “a numerous assemblage of human beings generally occupying a certain territory amongst whom the will of the majority or class is made to prevail against any of their number who oppose it.”

Elements of state

Following are the elements of the state
Physical bases of the State.

• Population
• Territory

Political bases of the State.

• Government
• Sovereignty

Population

It is the people who make the state. Population is essential for the state. Greek thinkers were of the view that the population should neither be too big nor too small.

Territory

There can be no state without a fixed territory. People need territory to live and organize them socially andpolitically. It may be remembered that the territory of the state includes land, water and air -space.
The modern states differ in their sizes. Territory is necessary for citizenship. As in the case of population, no definite size with regard to extent of area of the state can be fixed. There are small and big states.

Government

Government is the third element of the state. There can be no state without government. Government is the working agency of the state. It is the political organization of the state.
Prof. Appadorai defined government as the agency through which the will of the State is formulated, expressed and realized.

Sovereignty

The fourth essential element of the state is sovereignty.
The word "sovereignty” means supreme and final legal authority above and beyond which no legal power exists. The concept of “sovereignty” was developed in conjunction with the rise of the modern state. The term Sovereignty is derived from the Latin word superanus which means supreme.
The father of modern theory of sovereignty was Jean Bodin (1530 – 1597) a French political thinker.

Sovereignty has two aspects

• Internal sovereignty.
• External sovereignty

Internal sovereignty

Internal sovereignty means that the State is supreme over all its citizens, and associations.

External sovereignty

External sovereignty means that the state is independent and free from foreign or outside control

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Political science is science or not science

Aristotle, the father of political science considered political Science as the master of all sciences. Writers like Laski, Burke and Maitland used the title politics instead of political science.
Social sciences like history, sociology, political science, and economics also follow the scientific method while studying social phenomena. Laboratory tests are not possible in social sciences.
The basic difference lies in the fact that physical sciences study about matter whereas social sciences study about human beings. Hence the results obtained in physical sciences are precise, perfect and exact at all times. That is not possible in social sciences. This does not mean that political science claim to be a science can be denied. It is true that political science cannot be an exact science, since its laws and conclusions cannot be expressed in precise terms and it cannot predict political events accurately. Besides social and political relationships are constantly changing and what may be true of them today may not be true in the future. Hence political science can be called both a science and an art.

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what is Political Science Nature and Scope of Political Science

Jean Bodin (1530 – 1596)

A French political philosopher coined the term “Political Science”. Political science is a branch of social science. The study of Political science is of great significance and importance in the present day “Global village”.

Garner

Political Science is the study of the state Political science begins and ends with the state. It may be defined as the study of man in the process of governing himself.

Catlin

Politics means either activities of political life or the study of those activities, which are generally treated as activities of the various organs of government.

R.N. Gilchrist

Political science deals with general problems of the state and government.

Aristotle (384 – 322 B.C)

Aristotle was the first thinker to use the term ‘politics’. The term “Politics” is derived from the Greek word ‘Polis’ which means city – state. Polis or city – state was a small independent self – contained political society. Greeks did not make any distinction between politics and society. These Greek cities – states of ancient times provide an ideal point for the beginning of a systematic study of political science. Unlike, the ancient Greeks, we live in large territorial states today. Greek meaning of the state can be extended to the study of the modern state. In the words of the French scholar,

Paul Janet

Political science is that part of social science which treats the foundations of the state and principles of government.

Scope of political science

Scope of political science is to study the past things that happened and use it correct the present and determine what the future will say about.
From the various definitions, it is clear that the main point of discussion in the subject is state.
The scope can be discussed under the following heads

• Study of the form of the State as exits at present
• Study of the State in historical perspective
• Study of the ideal form of the State
• Behavioral concepts

Study of the Modern form of State

(Study of the form of the State as exits at present)

• Ends of State
• Study of government as a means
• Study of different forms of government
• Study of relationship between the people and the government

Study of State in Historical Perspective

• When and how the State came into existence
• State in different Ages
• Study of the change in thinking in different ages
• Study of the Behavior of Bureaucracy
• Study of Behavioral concept
• Study of the methods of election and voting behavior
• Study of political parties and pressure groups
• Study of the Social Economic and Geographical conditions
• Study of Developing Nation
• Study of International politics & International Organization

Nature of Political Science

There are different views on the nature of politics Aristotle, Bodin, Hobbes, Bluntschli, Montesquieu, few is, Sedgwick, Jellinek, etc, hold that politics is a science.
But writers like J.S. Hill, Maitland, Collin, Barker, etc, maintain that is only on art.

Politics is a Science

Politics is considered as science on the following grounds.

• Politics can be studied in a systematic manner.
• It is said that experimentation is possible in politics.
• Political Science, like other Sciences, has absolute and universal laws.
• It is possible to make predictions in politics, but in a limbed are.
• These are certain principles and methods on which political thinkers unanimously agree.
• Politics is a subject which has scientific nature.
• at present, politics has attained modernity.

Politics is not a Science

• Politics has no absolute and universal laws like physical sciences or exact sciences
• It does not observe the theory of cause and effect which is the basis of all Sciences.
• The subject of politics has not developed in a steady, regular and continuous manner
• Scientific methods of observation and experimentation cannot be applied to politics.

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